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ANCIENT TRANSPARENCIES GLASS: FROM SAND TO JEWELS Before the IV millennium in the Near East craftsmen discovered, probably by accident, that under certain conditions, quartziferous sand, quartzite and sandstone could be worked, modelled and baked like clay. The mixture of powdered quartz extracted from these minerals with other materials including limestone, produced the first kinds of “artificial” glass, and then a particular mixture of quartz, sodium carbonate or calcium called faïence. The core-forming technique, which was used to make the first containers – maybe in Mesopotamia -, remained the most common until the end of the first century BC, when the glass blowing technique was invented, again in the Near East. The beads for multicoloured necklaces and the small Phoenician-Punic pendants in the shape of human heads or animal were made using a variation of this technique: they were modelled around a rod which the craftsman wrapped in several layers of glass of the same or different colours according to the mask he wanted to obtain. The glass used for making these products was obtained by amalgamating silica, sodium and calcium at high temperatures; the different colours were produced by adding different proportions of oxides: copper was used for blue, copper or iron to give green, iron or antimony were used for yellow, tin for white, manganese for purple, manganese mixed with iron and copper for black. ANCIENT TRANSPARENCIES NECKLACES A man came …. with a necklace of gold, and with amber beads was it strung between. This the maidens in the hall and my honoured mother were handling, and were gazing on it, and were offering him their price..... (Homer, Odyssey XV, 459-463)Beads from necklaces are so common throughout the Mediterranean in different cultures and over a long period of time, that it is often impossible to establish the date and place where they were made. They were threaded onto a string or a metal wire. The glass beads could all be the same colour (monochrome) or of different colours (polychrome) and were often decorated with “eye” motifs , made with filaments in relief or stamped on, to keep away evil spirits. Necklaces often consisted of combinations of beads made of gold, silver, bronze, semi-precious stones and bone. The necklaces sometimes contained amulets and pendants made of different materials, thus fulfilling a magical-religious function. They are usually found in the tombs of women or children, but in some cultural settings, such as the Punic one, they could also be worn by men. Some terracotta statuettes show that in general the “male” necklaces were only worn around the neck while women could also wear them around their shoulders, on their chests or sewn onto their tunics. Although they were usually not of great value, they were placed in the tombs as prestigious personal belongings which had adorned the deceased when they were alive and identified them in death, too. At the same time they also had protective magical powers, thanks to the amulets and particular ornamental motifs, such as the “eye” which was probably intended to keep away the evil eye. The power of a look was definitely beneficial in the case of certain deities (like Horus in Egypt), but was more often considered a source of evil and had to be warded off with an equally strong opposing force. The necklaces made of beads decorated with eyes as well as the amulets with their representation, therefore evoke the power of a look which keeps evil at bay and, if worn by children, can symbolize the protective force which keeps the young one safe when the mother removes her gaze from him for a while. ANCIENT TRANSPARENCIES PENDANTS Glass pendants in the shape of an animal, a human head or a demon’s head, hanging from the neck or from the ears are typical of Phoenician and Punic craftsmanship. They appeared in the Near East during the VIII century BC and were produced until the first century BC. The area where they were produced during the VII, VI and V centuries BC is considered to be that of Phoenicia and Cyprus. From the V century BC, but especially between the IV and II, Carthage was probably the main centre of production; during the Hellenistic period it was joined by Rhodes, Cyprus and Egypt; it is possible that there were workshops also in other Punic centres. Besides their ornamental value, these masks have a protective and votive purpose, which maybe explains their presence within the Greek World. It is unlikely that they represent Phoenician-Punic deities. The pendants made of electric blue translucent glass or cobalt showing a two faced female head with curly hair, are also common in many eastern areas of Phoenician tradition and in the Punic East. They were made in a double mould, unlike their predecessors, which were rod formed. It is possible that these heads were produced in Carthage, but they could also have been made in the Eastern Mediterranean in places of production which were active between the IV and III centuries BC, such as Alexandria.
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